Dark Brown Giant

June 18th, 2010

Cindy

Dark Brown Giant

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Outstanding options for managing nematode pests of crops in India

Dr. Khan
Department of Entomology agricultural
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalyani, Nadia-741235, West Bengal, India
Email: mrkhanbckv@rediffmail.com

Introduction
Plant parasitic nematodes, the hidden enemy of cultures is one of many groups of organisms harmful plants that depend for their survival. Nematodes can cause damage to almost all types of crops, however, because of their habit underground, size microscopic (0.3 to 10 mm in length), they are invisible to the naked eye. They penetrate and feed on plant roots, the theft of essential nutrients for plant growth and expose the roots to attack by other soil pathogens. It has been widely recognized that parasitic nematodes plants are one of the groups most devastating pests and are responsible for disease symptoms in different cultures insidious causing losses enormous. Estimated annual yield losses in field crops in the world because of plant parasitic nematodes is about 12.3% and it is about 14% in developing countries (Sasser and Freckman, 1987). In India, the recent estimate showed nematode is responsible for both quantitative and qualitatively yield losses amounting to about Rs.240 billion each year (Sehgal and Gaur, 1999). Besides the direct damage, parasitic nematodes Plant predisposing agents used in the development of complex diseases with fungi, bacteria and viruses. In many cases, plant varieties resistant to fungi, bacteria are rendered susceptible when infected by nematodes. There is no doubt that the nematodes either alone or in combination with other pathogens are a major obstacle to global food production. Intensive and extensive cultivation of crops, in particular in the system production of irrigated crops has exacerbated serious nematode problems in different cultures. The hidden nature of nematodes cause damage outside for farmers, scientists and non-specific symptoms of disease in the aerial parts of crops may be the main reasons why so few attention has been paid to the pest hidden cultures.
Management of plant parasitic nematodes in the use high doses of DD, EDB, DBCP had been found so promising, but not received much popularity. In addition, all chemicals were effective withdrawn from the market worldwide because of their harmful effects on the environment. Subsequently, efforts were made to search for new chemicals in the group of non-smoke, but did not get effective control than fumigants. In fact, the nematodes are relatively hardy animals require high doses of insecticide with the property nematicide. Producers are still dependent on the limited number of insecticides only because of non-availability of genuine and effective nematicides. With the growing concern about the environment, various alternative methods of struggle against pests, such as culture, methods of physical control and biological plants are being tried to reduce nematode damage to crops. However, the judicious use of chemical nematicides could be applied for the protection of many crops. Integrating various practices available is one of the current approaches to managing pest problems. Cultural practices are known since time immemorial as a strategy to combat multiple. Biopesticides of plant origin have also been shown that effective alternative nematicides (Mishra 2002).
Therefore, the current options for managing nematodes are cultural practices, physical methods, the removal of nematodes biointensive, plants and the judicious use of chemical nematicides.
Considering the importance of nematodes in the integrated management system pest, following entry works namely a weak protection technologies. Summer plowing, solarization of soil, organic manure, the Crop rotation, adjusting the dates of sowing, cultivation of resistant varieties, irrigation management, fertilization optimal, the hot water treatment, the specific culture, green manuring, inter / mixed cropping, judicious use of pesticides, the integration of two or more methods above mentioned (Gaur and Khan, 1995) could be adopted for the management of insect pests, diseases, including nematodes in the production system agriculture.
Nature of nematode problems
plant parasitic nematodes can affect crop growth and development depending on population density and host susceptibility. In general, they feed the tissues of the host using their stylus protrusible causing injury and plants due to food and secretion change the fabric of the host in specialized cells Nutritional multinucleated giant cells that syncytial cells or nurse to ensure continuous supply. Some other nematodes induce galls on plant roots, leaves and seeds. By feeding on plant tissue injuries develop as a result of cell death and subsequent discoloration. Infected plants are easily attacked by various soil pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and develop a complex disease syndrome and disease. The etiology of these diseases caused by organisms involved is difficult to determine. Several nematodes serve as a vector of plant viruses. Thus nematodes functions as plant pathogens, which predisposes the agent and the vector of plant viruses. nematodes plant pests are known to interfere with the activity of beneficial nitrogen fixing bacteria Rhizobium in legume crops.
In this review, only economically important plant parasitic nematode problems of crops in India and their management options are briefly discussed:
1. nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) Global threat agricultural production (Sasser, 1980). It has a wide distribution and causes damage to crops especially vegetables. The average yield losses the world would be about 5% and may be more in developing countries of the tropics and subtropics (Taylor & Sasser, 1978). Considering the importance universal root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne an international project (IMP) was operated (1975-1984), with its head in North Carolina State University, United States and its collaborating centers have been in many developing countries in the tropics and subtropics. Worldwide more than 97 species Known root nematodes have been recorded and only 14 known species of Meloidogyne are recorded in India. Four species of nematodes namely root node. Meloidogyne indica, M. lucknowica, M. and M. piperi triticooryzae have been described from India. Various insect pests, diseases and weeds inflict damages to vegetable crops. Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) Are one of the potential constraints for the cultivation of vegetables particularly in developing countries in the tropics and subtropics. Vegetable crops harbor large numbers of plant parasitic nematodes, but the root nematode is more damaging one. It affects the crop, directly and indirectly through interaction with different soil borne fungi, bacteria and viruses. The species most dominant root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne incognita are M. javanica, M. arenaria and M. hapla. All species of nematodes produce a characteristic 'root root or'knotted Gall symptoms, which could be easily recognized by the naked eye. There is little culture vegetables that is not attacked by nematodes. Therefore, it was widely regarded as a limiting factor for crop vegetables. Lack of awareness of farmers on nematode problems and the unavailability of appropriate package of practices to extension for the management of root knot nematodes are the major obstacle to the protection of vegetable crops nematodes. approach to product management chemical nematode is no doubt effective but high doses of nematicides necessary to manage nematodes are neither economical nor environmentally friendly.
The infection of root-knot nematode produces symptoms of the disease on the characters below ground root system popularly known as "galls" or 'Knotted roots. Different sizes of galls induced by their host and the nematode species involved. On cucurbits, the nematode induces large galls, whereas in the small hot pepper gall is produced. Usually, the infection of M. hapla galls produced low compared to M. incognita and M. javanica. The size of galls also differs with the level of infection in case of infection or heavy large multiple galls or galls secondary develops. Besides jamming, bifurcation of the taproot of the carrot and Tuberculosis on the tubers of potatoes are also noted. Ground symptoms are not specific to the nature. Symptoms Infected plants in general mineral deficiency, yellowing, stunting, wilting during a warmer part of the day, chlorosis, premature leaf drop and we poor plant resulting in low yield. Nematodes are also involved in the interaction with other soil borne fungi, bacteria, and viruses and cause damage to crops. The interaction of root-knot nematodes is known in many vegetables, fiber, legumes and crop planting. However, the problem most is the frequent breakdown of resistance to wilt disease and healthy plants. The most common root-knot nematode interaction with Ralstonia (= Pseudomonas) solanacearum is originally "Pseudomonas tu tomato, eggplant and potatoes.
options for managing nematodes
The nematodes are polyphagous in nature, with a high reproductive potential, and have acquired unique mechanism of survival strategy by laying their eggs in protective gelatinous matrix. Management of root nematode is not an easy task in intensive cropping system. Therefore, the idea of keeping the nematode population below the economic damage by adopting different tactics available to producers is recommended. The tender seedlings of various crops are very vulnerable to attack by nematodes, while older plants to achieve a certain degree of tolerance. Considering the ability of the operator, after the culture of hygiene practices of vegetable crops could be proposed for the management of root knot nematodes:
Cultural practices
Cultural practices are the most effective and economical means of manage pests and diseases, including nematode problems.
• Two to three summer plowing (20 cm depth) during the months of May-June at the interval of 15 days exposed nematodes, weeds, diseases and propagule stages of hibernation insect pests, before the sun and the cause of their death.

• Inter-crop plants as antagonists with Marigold (Tagetes spp.) Reduces the population of the ground floor of many nematodes, including root-knot nematodes. The incorporation of this crop in the cropping systems, either as inter-crop or crop substitution should be considered whenever possible.

• Crop rotation with resistant varieties or non-host crops such as mustard, sesame, corn, wheat, etc. are useful to reduce the soil population of nematodes below the threshold of damage.

• Spreading organic manure, farm yard manure (FYM) 18-20 t / ha reduced the nematode population through their work published toxic substances, tolerance improved crops and soil antagonists encouraging microbial

Resistant varieties
Resistance plants plays an important role in integrated disease management of root knot nematodes, however, the availability of resistant varieties vegetables are very few and many of them are not acceptable to farmers for their relevance.
Some of the varieties of resistance showed resistance or tolerance reaction to root-knot nematodes are also given below:
Tomato: SL-120, Lalit Hisar, NRP-7, N-1 Hisar, Hisar N-2, Hisar N-3, NT-3, NT-NT 8-12, Ronit, Patriot, PAU-5, Mangla and hybrid Karnataka.
Chilli: Jawala Pusa, PAC-63 CA-2057, Sindhura, NP-46 A, Mohini, SP-26-P 6-3, K-235
Brinjal: Giant of Banaras, black beauty, Gola, Gachha Baigan, PBR, 91-2, CI-95-13, HOE-101, Wonder Red.
Cowpea: Barasati mutant, 82-IB, C-152, RSI-29-5, GAU-1
Peas: B-58, C-50
Potatoes: Kufri Dewa
Okra: Green Kanki local Harichickni, Vaishali Badh
Pumpkin: Dasna, Jaipuri
Water melon: Shahjanpuri
Ridge Gourd: Panipat, Meerut Special (modified after Anon. 1988)
Chemical control
Chemical control of the application of nematicides is the most effective management of nematodes. However, most effective nematicides have been withdrawn from the world market. Currently, some insecticides with nematicides property are available to farmers, but due to high dose required for the management of nematodes, it becomes unprofitable and leaves residues of pesticides raised to the crops. Despite their inherent disadvantages, chemical nematicides could be applied judiciously so that the doses and costs are reduced drastically. The application of nematicides in bare-root dip treatment, seed treatment and treatment in the nursery has been shown to be effective to protect seedlings against attacks by nematodes.
Nursery treatment
In most cases, the infection is infested nursery plants. Damage caused by root-knot nematode root system of young plants are more harmful than older plants. The application of nematicides nursery helps raise seedlings free of nematodes. In addition, it reduces dose of nematicides and costs substantially. The soil application of carbofuran (Furadan 3G) at 0.3 g ai/m2 is sufficient to produce plants of nematode many vegetable transplants. The treatment of the nursery with sebuphos (Rugby 20 WP) or carbofuran (Furadan 3G) or benfurocarb (Oncol 50 WP) at 0.3 or 0.6 g ai/m2 at seeding time reduced nematode galls and yield of tomato seeds by 25-62%.
root DIP treatment Bare
The transplanted seedlings of many vegetables crops can be soaked in systemic nematicides such as oxamyl and prophos dimethoate 500 to 1000 ppm for six hours to denematize roots. These practices will also guarantee to protect the root system of seedlings against attacks at the beginning of nematodes. Vegetable seedlings transplanted as brinjal, tomato, chilli and planting material is treated with gourd carbosulfan (Marshal 25 EC) at 500 ppm for six hours, provided effective control against root-knot nematodes. Treatment nursery with carbofuran 0.3 g ai/m2 coupled with deep seeding with carbosulfan 25 EC 500pm before transplanting effectively manage M. incognita and improve crop yields of vegetables.
Bare root dip treatment of tomato and eggplant seedlings with Zolone (Phosalone 35 EC) or monocrotophos (36 Monocil SL) or carbosulfan (Marshall 25 st or DS) to 0.05% reduced root nematodes and increasing yield.
Seed treatment
The practice of seed soaking and seed treatment are important preventive measures that give adequate protection for the initial seedlings of tomato, eggplant, okra, peppers, etc. The most commonly used systemic About nematicides. fenamiphos, isofenphos, etc. are used carbosulfan 2-3% w / w.
Seed dressing carbosulfan (Marshall 25 st) to 3% w / w is very effective in managing nematode in okra roots gourd, a gourd, bitter gourd and jute. Seed soaking with dimethoate, carbosulfan (Marshal 25 EC) can also be adopted to ensure a better harvest with early protection against nematodes.
Scope
application in the field of 3G, carbofuran at 2 kg ai / ha in the tomato, eggplant and okra reduces the nematode population and increases yields.
Biological control
Despite several limitations, biological control is cost-knot nematodes and respectful environmental approach. As part of the integrated management of nematodes, biological suppression of root-knot nematodes is well documented. Several biocontrol agents have been used against the measure, but only three namely biological agents. Paecilomyces lilacinus (Khan & Goswami, 2002), and Pseudomonas fluorescens Pene trans Pasteuria have been widely recognized as effective and promising biological agents. Some formulations P. Paecilomyces (Bionematon, Yorker) and Pasteuria penetrans (Pasutsuria 50 WP), Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum (Trichostar, custody Trichoderma, Bioderma, Ecoderma etc.) are available on the market to control nematodes.
Integrated Approach for the management of root knot nematodes
individual method of struggle against nematodes approach has proven to be ineffective or unprofitable cons nematodes gall. Therefore, the integration of various tactics can be an appropriate environmentally, economically approach viable and feasible in practice for the management of nematode problems in crops. The adoption of deep tillage was during the summer at intervals of two weeks with the application of organic matter followed by planting seedlings in the nematode free is a possible approach to reduce nematode populations. Similarly, farmers with their available resources could follow the integration of cultural diversity, biological methods and chemical resistant varieties in combination adapted to each cropping system. Soil solarization and plowing was alone and the combination with carbofuran 3 G at 2 kg ai / ha was found effective against nematodes infesting brinjal, chilli and tomato. Seedlings grown in nursery solarized treated with carbofuran 0.3 g ai/m2 integrated with the application of neem cake 5q/ha gives better check against nematodes infesting vegetables and increases performance.
2. Wheat Seed Gall Nematode (Anguina tritici)
This nematode One of the most important pests of wheat in the country. It is the oldest known plant parasitic nematodes and the nematode alone shell ear disease "causes" wheat and in association with the bacterium, Clavibactor tritici product "Fusarium head blight yellow" or "disease Tundu. The host range of this nematode very few and wheat is considered the most appropriate host. Although control of this nematode is simple and easy compared to Other plant parasitic nematodes, it is still problematic in many wheat growing areas of Rajasthan, UP, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh especially in the tribal areas, where tons of wheat grain are wasted each year (Anon, 1995-2001). galls wheat are the main source of dissemination for nematodes or mixture of seeds from the hull. Juveniles of A. tritici remain viable in the internal state of the hull since anhydrobiotic years. After sowing the gall / shells come into contact with the soil moisture and becomes soft, leading to the release of a large number second-stage juveniles. These infect the young seedling growing point and are recorded in ectoparasite inflorescence due to the natural growth of seedlings. The nematode enters the floral primordia and become endoparasitic flowers and possibly prime converted seed galls.
The first visible symptom is expanding the base of the stems near the soil surface at 20 to 25 plants a day. In general, the infested plant exhibits plus the number of tillers and growing fast compared to healthy ones. Twisting, rustle of leaves and stunting are common symptoms to early stage of plant growth are usually affected ears swollen, wider with beards or a little on the glumes. The ears contain shelly galls first green later in each ear-rent from January to May galls can be seen.
or Fusarium yellow disease Tundu
Stage Early plant shows symptoms of disease similar to that of ear disease in the hull. The disease of the ear rot is yellow mainly caused by a bacterium, Clavibactor tritici in the presence of nematode A. tritici. Under humid conditions, the characteristic symptoms are introduced with a production of bright yellow bacterial slime on the surface of the leaf that can be seen running down the ears. In dry weather, the sludge gets tough, the patients are usually distorted peaks, retarded growth and narrower than those with healthy grains partially or completely converted bacterial mass.
Management options
The nematode is easy to manage because the spleen is the only source of the disease of the ear-shells and Tundu. The two methods of physical and mechanical properties effective for the eradication of the nematode several developed countries of the world, however, in India this nematode is still become problems probably due to lack of awareness and failure of the national campaign against the terrible disease wheat.
Physical methods
• Hot water treatment of wheat seed-lots at 54-56 0 C for 10-20 minutes.
• Water flotation seed galls in saline 5-10% 5-15 minutes. Seed Gall Nematode container will float in water surface and can be collected and disposed.
Mechanical methods
Fanning or winnowing is an effective method remove galls from seed lots. Sieving / screening is a common practice and most effective method to eradicate the root-knot nematode Seed from many countries, if the complete elimination of bile is not possible with these methods because some large tumors are retained on the sieve.
3. cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera avenae)
Heterodera avenae is the agency responsible a serious illness known as "molí" disease of wheat and barley. The disease was first recorded in India and Rajasthan thereafter it is known to occur in key states increasingly to know. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh in India (Kaushal et al., 2001). The nematode is mainly confined to the Gramminae family.
Exposure of nematode-infested fields with uneven growth stunted and yellow plants. Infested plants showed thin narrow leaves, reduced tillering, fewer leaves and small heads the size of ear with a reduced number of grains. The roots of affected plants appear bushy nematodes, bunchy because of the emergence of the root allows the site of infection and slight swelling of the extremities of the roots may be encountered. The above ground symptoms are often confused with symptoms of deficiency General. However, the presence of cysts is the only proof of confirmation of infection by nematodes.
The second stage juveniles infect points of root growth and feeding of developing specialized syncytial cells for their growth and development. After three months, juveniles to reach sedentary lemon-shaped female who is on the attack with roots. The eggs are laid within the body of the woman and after the death of women, the cuticle of the body become brown cysts. In cons-season, the nematode survives in the cyst.
Management options
Cultural practices
• Crop rotation with non-hosts like Sarson, Pretoria, Raya, Tarama, gram, berseem, etc. coriander carrot, with wheat.
• Deep tillage was (2-3) at an interval of 10-15 days during the hot months of summer
• the wheat cultivar C-306 as a trap crop in early October
• Cultivation of resistant varieties of barley cultivar as Rajkiran, C-164, BH-72.
Chemical control
Scope Carbofuran (FRADAN 3G) at 2 kg ai / ha proved effective (Kaushal et al. 2001).
The integrated
The integration of different tactics has been found against the nematode Economic cereal cyst. Early sowing in the month of November with field application of carbofuran 2kga.i./ha is quite effective to increase yield and reducing the population of cysts in the soil.
4. Potato cyst nematodes (Globodera rostochiensis, G. pallida)
It is a serious parasitic nematodes of potatoes in some southern states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The nematode is popularly known as "golden nematode" and was recognized as one of the main problems of protection of world cultures. The nematodes are responsible for average losses of 9% of the total amount of potatoes to about 40 million tonnes (Krishna Prasad, 1995). In India, cyst nematode potato is known since 1961, when Jones FG detected from the nematode field to the farm in the state Vijayanagaram Ootacmund Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu. Considering the importance of cyst nematode potato in the country, the Government of Tamil Nadu has imposed destructive insects Pest Act 1919 (DIP Act 1919) in 1971 to contain the nematodes in the Nilgiri hills.
It is difficult to detect symptoms of nematode infestation low, but Symptoms are important only after the accumulation of population in the soil. Symptoms of the disease appears in small patches of plants becoming worse, you temporary plant in the day, plants stunted, unhealthy yellowish foliage and poor root systems, reducing the number and tuber size and production of potato yield gradually reduced over the years. The nematode is mainly limited to the Solanaceae family and depends on the host root diffusates that induce hatching of second stage juveniles from eggs. Juvenile second stage infect the root and change the cells in giant cell to ensure stable food to reach the adult stage. Adult females are white spherical shape that is attached to the root and following the death of a female cyst turn brown. All eggs laid by females are kept inside body. The cyst containing eggs are protected and remain viable for several years in the soil, even in the absence of the potato. Pathotypes RO5 Ro1 and G. rostochiensis and G. PA2 and Pa3 pallida cyst nematode potato are known to be widespread in India.
Nematode cysts containing Eggs are generally distributed through the soil particles adhering to tubers, farm implements, gunny bags, etc. However farmers feet, irrigation water or rain water flows the side of the field make the cyst infested fields not infested.
Management options
Cultural practices
• Growing non-host vegetables such as cabbage family Solanaceae, beet cauliflower, carrots, garlic, radish, turnip, etc. A rotation of the more useful the potato-cabbage-carrot is commonly practiced by farmers in Nilgiri hills.
• Resistant: Kufri Swarna
Chemical control:
The use of carbofuran (FURDAN 3G) 2kga.i./ha is effective in reducing nematode populations and yield of potato land increases.
Key nematodes of rice in India
i) Rice root knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola
ii) nematode Rice Hirschmanniella spp.
iii) Rice stem nematode, Ditylenchus angustus
iv) white-tip nematode, Aphelenchoides besseyi
v) nematode Cyst rice, Heterodera oryzicola

5. nematode in rice roots (Meloidogyne graminicola)
knot nematode Rice, Meloidogyne graminicola is a well established nematode pests of rainfed upland rice. It poses serious problems for Boro and Nursery kahrif especially in sandy loam or alluvial soils of West Bengal recently. It is also becoming a problem in transplanted rice grown in waterlogged conditions. The incidence of M. graminicola was found in Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Karnataka and Tripura.
The Symptoms air is not specific to the nature as yellowing, stunting of foliage, flowering delayed for 10-15 days and reduced the number of tillers. The presence of the characteristic "hook-shaped" or "ring-shaped galls on the root tips of rice plants growing is evidence confirming the association of this nematode. The galls produced by nematodes induce growth of lateral roots and root hairs can. The Yield losses due to M. graminicola has been estimated at between 16-32% in upland rice and in severe cases up to 64% (Phukan, 1995). A complete failure of the nursery in boro "simurali" in Nadia district, West Bengal has been noted (Anon, 2001)
After harvest of rice, the nematode can survive in the egg stage in soil or continue to reproduce on various weeds. Men often remains hidden in root tissue and eggs are laid in the cortical tissue and juveniles hatched reinfect the same roots. This complete life cycle in 19 days 22 to 29 0C in upland rice.
Management options:
Cultural practices
i.Scheduling crop rotation with non-host crops such as cauliflower, sesame, peanut, onion, corn, soybeans, cowpeas
ii. Marriage: The rice supports another kind as weeds Echinochloa spp. Eleucine Indica, scrobiculatum Paspalam, Cyperus spp. etc.
iii. Resistant varieties: CR-143-2-2, RC-147-2-1, CR-1009 CT-428, Sudha, Murti
Chemical approaches
i. Soaking seeds with carbosulfan (Marshal 25 EC) or at500ppm Carbosulfone 0.1% for 12 hours
ii.Bare plunging into carbosulfan (Marshal 25 EC) at 500 ppm for 20 minutes
iii. treatment nursery with carbofuran (Furadan 3G) 1kga.i./ha and the same dose of nematicides to 7 and 50 days after transplanting
6. Rice nematode (PSP Hirschmanniella.)
Rice nematode is a migratory endoparasite of roots and occurs mainly in wet habitats. nematodes of rice, Hirschmanniella spp. Migratory endoparasites are unique rice and cause yield losses to the extent of 19% of rice in West Bengal (Ahmad et al., 1984). mucronata and H. oryzae Hirschmanniella are two kinds of rice and economic the presence of H. gracilis is questionable in India (Per. Comm. Dr. M. Siddiqi). Juveniles and adult stages through the entire length of roots and feed on cortical cells leading to the formation of channels or cavities in the roots. His power sometimes extends to the central regions diseases. The Infected roots waterlogged brown lesions that are mostly spindle-shaped. The physiological function of infected plants is disrupted and plant growth reduced. The above ground symptoms are nonspecific stunting, chlorosis of leaves, reduced tillering and delayed flowering.
Population species was found maximum during Hirschmanniella phages active growth of rice. The population of this nematode accumulation increases after transplanting until 80 days of rice (Singh & Jain, 1995) and decreases when the roots of rice begins to degenerate.
Rice nematode survives better in the poorly drained clay and heavy soils. It can survive even at high temperature from May to June (35-45 0 C) and low temperature from December to January (8-12 0 C) under the conditions of India North (Mathur and Prasad, 1973). Their survival in the soil is much longer than in roots in flooded soils. H. oryzae can survive more than 12 months in moist soil. A number of weeds in rice fields serve as a substitute host for this nematode. In West Bengal, the nematode can survive in the summer months in the absence of any crop in laterite soil conditions (Khan and Mukhopadhyay, 2002). Under rice-wheat cropping system, the nematode maintain a very high population, while wheat is not the host of the nematodes. Propagation of the nematode is mainly by water irrigation, water, soil adhering to farm implements, field workers and roots of rice seedlings.
Management options
Direct seeding of rice has been considered more vulnerable to attack by this nematode compared to transplanted crops (Singh & Jain, 1995).
The cultural practices
i. At the beginning of rice planting in the month of June or mid July
ii.Use of organic amendments such as meal neem cake or mustard to 220-240 kg / ha
iii. NPK balanced fertilizer
iv. crop rotation with wheat, flaxseed, potatoes, cauliflower, mustard and gram in rabi season
v. Deep plowing of summer dry
vi.Weeding standing and in the absence of rice harvest
vii. Growing resistant varieties / cultivars: TKM-9, CR-142-3-2, CR-52, N-136, W-136
viii. Sesbania rostrata can be used as trap crop for H. oryzae
Chemical approaches
i. Nursery bed treatment with carbofuran 3G or phorate 10 G at1.0 kg ai / ha followed by I.0 kg / ha at 7 and 50 days after transplanting
ii. Bare root dip treatment with chlorpyrifos / carbosulfan 25 EC / monocrotophos 36 EC at 1000-2000ppm for 20 to 30 minutes
iii. Seed soaking carbosulfan with 25 EC or 0.2% during isofenphos 6:00.
7. Rice stem nematode (Ditylenchus angustus)
Nematode stalks of rice is generally problematic in rice grown in deep water situations. The stem nematode vernacular name is derived Root inhabiting the nature of the nematode. It is an obligate parasite and pest of rice causes symptoms of illness called popular "disease UFRA. Bangladesh and parts of India, 100% yield losses were recorded due to severe attacks of D. angustus. The nematode was found widespread in Malda, Murshidabad, Hooghly, 24-Parganas, Jalpaiguri, Coochbehar and West Dinajpur districts of West Bengal and Sibsagar, Jorhat, Morrigaon, Sonitpur, Borbet and Dhubri in Assam (Phukan, 1995)
The symptoms produced by the rice stem nematode is popularly known as UFRA dakpora or illness. Symptoms appear in UFRA patches and then spread to the entire field. The attack nematodes stage results vegetative or yellowing white model on the leaf sheath and the margin becomes wavy. In due course of time, the pace becomes starter brown spots and stem and the other node becomes black. Torsion of the leaf sheath and leaves are common symptoms. Sometimes, the infected nodes to bushy appearance due to branching. UFRA Symptoms can be grouped as:
Swollen or Thor UFRA: Panicle do pop out, it remains locked in the leaf sheath and the infected part tends to branch.
Pucca or ripe UFRA panicle partially released panicle and filled grain door Tip only.
The main sources of infection are angustus D. rice stubble, straw, wild rice and bad weeds in rice fields. The nematode can pass the winter in the resting state (fourth stage juveniles) that remains viable up to 15 months. They live in a state anhydrobiotic wrapped in cereals (Prasad & Varaprasad, 2001); dried plant parts left in the fields and reinfected in the harvest next season.
Management options:
Cultural Approaches
i. Destruction rice stubble, weeds and wild rice in the rice fields
ii. Crop rotation with jute, sesame, mustard with rice
iii.Summer plowing allows destroy nematodes by drying in the scorching heat of the sun
iv. Rapid Growth (Padmapani) or resistant (selection Rayada) varieties (Prasad et al., 2001)
Chemical approaches
i. spray with diazinon 0.01%
ii. 10G soil application of Phorate or Carbofuran 3G 1 kg ai / ha at the time of transplanting
8. white tip nematode (Aphelenchoides besseyi)
A. besseyi is a specialized parasite attacking the aerial parts of its natural host, the rice. Although rice is the most appropriate host for this nematode, it can infect the tuber, onion, soybean, sugarcane, oats, millet, orchids, etc. The most characteristic symptom is the disease "tip white "in the rice paper produced by the nematode which causes the common name of the nematode is" white tip nematode. It has been found in the severe form of rice from Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. In West Bengal, the nematode is more a problem in the rice fields near tuberose tuberose different growing areas of the state (Khan, 2001). The nematode is widespread throughout the state West Bengal (Das & Khan, 2007).
It is easy to detect the presence of nematodes in rice seeds. In the field, the initial appearance of symptoms as the tip of the leaf up to 5 cm becomes pale yellow or whitish tillering stage and then allowed to dry. These symptoms are for a short period in the plant. The tip of the leaf are often twisted, which can block the emergence of panicles. Infested panicles are shorter and lighter in weight compared to healthy panicles.
A. besseyi survives as a pre-adult and adult stages in (Resting state) in the hulls of rice kernel and does not survive in the soil after harvest of rice plants. Infected seed or the presence of other guests Alternative help nematode to survive until the next harvest. They are generally spiral anhydrobiotic State of rice between lemma and palea up to 3 years. The rice seed is infected the only way to rapid spread of A. besseyi. It also spread by irrigation water or flood water. Female lays her eggs on rice plants. All stages of development occur on the rice plants. The life cycle of A. besseyi is completed within two weeks and, therefore, several generations are completed in one growing season.
Management options
Prophylactic
i.Healthy rice seeds control the spread of white tip disease of rice
ii. Rice stubble to be burned or destroyed after harvest
iii. Simply sow the seeds of rice on the concrete floor on sunny days at least 4 hours for 6 consecutive days kills nematodes within the grain
iv.Seed-soaking in water (1:2 ratio) for the night and then adding two volumes of boiling water for 10 minutes, then drying the seeds in the shade
v.Seed treatment with 25 ° C. carbosulfan 0.1% for 12 hours.
9. Rice cyst nematode (Heterodera oryzicola)
Heterodera oryzicola has been reported as a serious pest rice in Kerala. It has also been known to occur in the district of Burdwan and Bankura of West Bengal (Rao, 1985). This nematode is a major pest rice and banana in Kerala (Kuriyan, 1995). Its presence has been registered in Karnataka and Goa (Prasad, 2002).
The root browning and chlorosis leaves, delayed growth, early flowering plants 10-15 days and partial filling of the grains are the typical symptoms of infection H. of oryzicola. No Gall developed on rice roots. The presence of a cyst on the rice brown root is the proof of confirmation of the infestation by nematodes. A life cycle is completed in 30 days and 12 generations can occur in one year. Yield losses could be far from 38% due to the attack nematode (Rao, 1978). The spread of nematodes through infested plants, water irrigation or agricultural tools.
The management options
i. Soaking seeds with fenamiphos at 0.02% for 6 hours
ii. Soil application of carbofuran or phorate 1 kg ai / ha at 7 and 50 DAT
iii. Culture of resistant varieties as Lalnakanda, CR143-2-2
iv.Regulatory measures on the movement of banana rhizomes as well as rice plants from infested areas should be adopted.

10. deburring nematodes (Radopholus similis)
This nematode is internationally plant quarantine and is capable of parasitizing many fruits, spices and plantation crops. It is known to cause serious disease of black pepper popularly called jaundice pepper "in Indonesia and" you slow "in India and" spreading decline "in Florida. Many economic important crops like banana, citrus, etc. betelvine, coconut, black pepper, ginger, arecanut, are seriously affected by the nematode. Nematode is essentially a problem in southern states like Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh (Parvathi Reddy & Singh, 1980). Recently, he obtained the propagation of the state like Orissa, Manipur, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh and Gujarat may be blind by the movement of planting material of banana, ginger and turmeric rhizomes.
Nematodes infested banana exhibitions "disease reversal 'rolling stage, premature defoliation, plant vigor poor and, finally, reducing the plan size and weight. In the root, lesions develop on the roots rot and subsequent decomposition tender roots because of the involvement of other soil microorganisms. The coconut plants attacked by A. similis showing symptoms of decline as general yellowing, stunting and leaf Smalling and button shedding led to a low yield. In black pepper, slower growth vine, leaf yellowing, tassel rapid decline followed by severe wasting and death of the vine are common symptoms. The roots of coffee arecanut, betelvine are severely attacked and develop characteristic lesions and root rot and decay. The nematode is an endoparasite migratory roots and feed on succulent tissue of feeder roots. Because of their intracellular movement, the nematode destroys the cells and forms of burrow or cavity inside the root. All stages of development are able to feed on roots. The eggs are laid in the tissues roots and newly hatched young begin to feed and develop roots inside. Therefore, the cycle of life can be completed in the roots. The total life cycle is completed in 20-25 days. In India, the race of the banana R. similis is widespread.
Management options
The nematode is difficult to manage because of its nature and endoparasites wide host range.
Preventive measures
• Equipment planting / sowing should be free of nematodes
• Any occurrence of discoloration on the rhizome must be removed and treated Bordeaux mixture or nematicides
• Hot water treatment of rhizomes to 50-55 0C for 20-25 minutes could be done to denematize equipment planting.
• Make planting coconut, arecanut, black pepper nematode free nursery
• Before planting sun-drying, rhizomes of banana is also effective in reducing populations of nematodes
Curative measures
• Application of carbofuran 6 g ai or ai phorate 3 g / plant 2-3 times in one year is effective in reducing nematodes in the coconut and banana.
• Application neem cake at 400 g / plant after planting and after the second dose 4 months clump weight and increase the yield of banana
• Avoid sensitive crops such as intercropping
The • intercropped with Crotalaria juncea reduced the population of R. similis
• Biological agents such as P. Paecilomyces, Glomus fasciculatum, Pasteuria penetrans are promising agents against R. similis
Varieties resistant / tolerant:
Banana: Kadal, Pedalimoongil, Kunnan, Kunnan Pey, Pisang Seriby
Areca: Resistant: VTL VTL-11x-17 (Sundarraju & Koshy, 1988)
Tolerant: Indonesia-6 (VTL-11)
Mahuva-B, Andaman-5 (LTV-29F)
Coco: Kenthali, Klappawangi, Java Giant Hybrid (JG X Yellow Dwarf Kulasekheram (KDY), KDY JG X, Java Malayan Yellow Dwarf x Tall, San Ramon Gangabondan X (Sosamma and al.1980)
11. citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans):
Citrus nematodes found in all citrus producing regions of the country and is widely recognized as economically important pests of citrus. It is one of the causal factors for 'slow decline "of citrus, which is characterized by a general reduction in tree growth, lack of vigor, yellowing of foliage and small fruit size. The nematode is semi-endoparasite of roots of citrus. It causes symptoms that are often non-descriptive and difficult to diagnose. The nematode is often overlooked in the seedling nursery which is widely distributed. The presence of the nematode is best confirmed by microscopic observations of samples of soil and roots. Female nematodes and their gelatinous matrix containing eggs according to the soil particles and give roots a dirty appearance which is not easily washed off. The worst effects of nematode on growth and yield of citrus are usually encountered when seedlings are planted on new old orchard. This condition is known under the name "citrus replant problem. The young tree grows slowly and fruiting is delayed. This condition of infested trees is called "Slow decline that implies a general deterioration of citrus trees starting with the production of smaller fruits and less. The magnitude the decline in mature trees is related to their effect, tolerance to nematodes and the degree of infection.
T. semipenetrans is feeds on surface layers of roots causing discoloration and necrosis. A young woman penetrate tissue deeper roots and establishes a feeding site around the head. The feeding site comprising of 16 cortical cells referred to the nurse cell. The posterior part of the body of elderly woman couple stay outside and eggs are laid in a gelatinous matrix outside the host tissue. The life cycle of this nematode is completed within 6-8 weeks at optimum temperature of 25-31 0C.
Management options:
Prophylactic
a. Nursery raising of young plants must be free of infection of nematodes
b. previously infested citrus orchard should be avoided, or fumigation to kill the entire population of nematodes in the soil.
v. Preventing flow of water alongside citrus orchard Infested
d. The use of clean equipment / implementation of cultural practices because the movement of particles of soil adhering to a place to another in an orchard can spread the nematode.

It is difficult to eliminate the nematode once established in an orchard. Therefore, regular monitoring is essential to prevent nematode reach above the threshold of damage. Usually, the nematodes at low density population (500 / g root of power) are not harmful to the culture, but high population (4000 / g root) causes devastating damage planting citrus (Nickle, 1991).
Curative measures
A. Application of neem cake, mahua, groundnuts etc in 1kg/plant can reduce nematode populations.
b. The combined use of neem cake at 1 kg / plant with 3G carbofuran (Furadan) 1.0 kg ai / ha is also effective.
C. The use of biocontrol agent Paecilomyces Paecilomyces as 4 g / plant with 3G carbofuran (Furadan) 1 kg ai / ha gives good Results (Parvathi Reddy et al., 1996).
d. Use of resistant "snakeroot" stock citrus can be an effective method check nematodes.
Cultural practices
Removing old feeder roots before growth begins hunt followed by the application of FYM help reduce nematode populations in soil.
12. foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides besseyi) of tuberose
Tuberose is commercially important for flower loose, cut flowers and for the extraction of essential oils. Its commercial cultivation in West Bengal has been started in the second half of the 19th century to meet the aesthetic needs of the English hosted in Calcutta. At present the total area of tuberose in India is estimated at about 20,000 ha, including 2110 ha in West Bengal and is mostly confined Kolaghat-Panskura, Ranaghat and Haringhata areas. In terms of area and production of tuberose in West Bengal in the first place. Recently foliar nematode, Aphelenchoides besseyi has been emerged as a serious problem in the tuberose in West Bengal. This nematode was first reported both from the islands of Hawaii on the leaves of tuberose (Holtzman, 1968). The emergence of disease caused by A. Flowers besseyi in tuberous was recorded areas of Nadia district of West Bengal Ranaghat (Chakraborti & Ghosh, 1993). In India, this nematode is widespread in Africa Eastern and Southern States in particular rice causes "white tip disease" and said because of yield losses 20-30% of rice, although the disease caused by Flower A. besseyi Tuberous has not met the other states except West Bengal. Recently, he obtained the propagation of the State neighbor, Orissa, either by the movement of light bulbs or other means. Recent surveys have revealed that A. besseyi is a limiting factor major growing regions in the tuberose and Ranaghat Haringhata Nadia, Bangaon 24-Parganas (South) and a few pockets of Howrah and Midnapore districts of West Bengal. The high population of A. besseyi has also been recorded from the fields Kolaghat-Panskura-II district of Midnapore. The 'single' tuberous cultivar was found to be most vulnerable to damage caused by A. besseyi from 'double' cultivar. Khan et al. (1999, 2001) studied foliar disease of severe infestation, tuberose and find A. besseyi is the main causal agent of malformation flowers. The population of A. besseyi causing disease in rice white tip is the same population of infecting tuberose and cause disease floral (Khan, 2001). A. besseyi is now recognized as the key nematode pest of tuberose and it becomes a potential threat to the cultivation of tuberose in West Bengal.
The stem of the flower appears initially infected raw, stalk become crinkled, stunted growth and, finally, distorted and in severe cases flower buds not to bloom. brown streaks appear on the bracts and leaves the petals, then develop rusty brown spots. The severely infected flower stem is rotten and crumbling during drying, even get blind. The number of flowers per stem is reduced and wrinkled and deformed flowers which are not acceptable in the market. The nematode, A. besseyi remains in masses forming the wool worms that could easily be recovered from dark brown spots (Khan & Pal, 2001). The ovary contains large numbers of nematodes. This nematode is more severe during the rainy season usually July to September and the loss of one hundred percent of the harvest of second year, especially in Calcutta Single of the tuberous cultivar was recorded. However, Calcutta double 'cultivar by 30% to 40% of flowers become unsaleable stem and flower stalk up to 45,000 individual nematodes were recovered (Khan et al., 2002). In Calcutta single nematode could cause 38-59% loss of yield (Pathak and Khan, 2005)
The distribution of A. be SSEi is by bulbs collected in infested fields. The nematode survives in a state anhydrobiotic wound (resting pre-adult and adult) in the leaves outside the scaly bulbs. The nematode can also survive in the stems of dried leaves scaly, and flowers more than 25 months, but they can not survive in soil for long time (Khan, 2004).
Nematode Management
a. Planting material (Bulbs) should be soaked in neem seed-kernel-extract (neem home preparation available locally) for the night or by dipping the bulbs in monocrotophos 36SL 500 ppm for 6 hours.
b. After germination of the bulb, three to four sprays with monocrotophos 36 SL at500ppm 15-20 days apart should be granted (Khan et al. 2005).
v. In the second and third crop year with spraying monocrotophos 36 SL 500 ppm 15 20 days apart from the month of May before reducing the nematode infestation.
d. Clean cultivation of tuberose and all infested areas plants found in the area should be burned immediately (Khan, 2006).
13. reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus renifo IRMS):
The adult female nematode reniform (Rotylenchulus reniformis) is a mandatory semi-sedentary endoparasitic a wide range food, fiber, oilseed, oilseed, fruits and plantation crops. The common name "kidney" is derived from the female kidney shaped mature. He receives a distribution and importance as pests of national cultures. Currently, there are 10 species of nematodes reniform known worldwide, but R. reniformis is the most widespread and is of economic importance. In West Bengal, R. reniformis was known to be associated with many vegetable crops, banana, tuberose, tea, legumes, fruits, etc. betelvine
The Crop damage symptoms are not specific on the ground above or even below ground parts that require close monitoring to confirm their presence and damage. It feeds on the cortical tissue, phloem and pericycle and infection can cause formation of necrosis on the roots of certain crops. Symptoms appear as a discoloration of roots, shedding leaves and fruit formation and seed malformed. In addition to causing direct damage to roots plants, the nematode concert with other pathogens such as Fusarium spp. Verticillium spp. Sclerotium rolfsii and Rhizoctonia solani of developing diseases complex. It has also been reported to parasitize bacterial nodules.
The nematode can survive in the soil air-dried for a long period of time (Gaur & Perry, 1991). The conservation of the old cuticle molt stages is a unique adaptation to the survival of nematodes in soil. Individual young women, men and fourth juvenile stages could survive in a state wound with anhydrobiotic cuticle embedded in the ground. The survival of this nematode inversely proportional to the rate of loss of moisture in the soil. Therefore, the drying and wetting replacement ground led to a decline Sharpe population density of nematodes in the soil.
The first molt occurs in the eggs and the eggs are hatched in water without the influence of root exudates. The young develop in the pre-adult stage without any host tissue supply and quickly fill the superposition of three molting. The young woman is the only infective stage. After infection in roots, young women orient themselves perpendicular to the longitudinal axis with the posterior roots are outside of the root. After establishing the feeding site, it developing kidney shaped with women beyond posterior part outside of the root. Spawning begins in 7-10 days after the invasion and the eggs are laid in a gelatinous matrix secreted by six specialized cells in the vagina. Each egg mass contains 30-200 eggs. total life cycle is completed within 3-4 weeks depending on temperature and quality of care.
Management options:
Cultural methods:
Crop rotation with nonhost crops such as mustard, corn, sugar cane, concern
Growing sensitive crops during winter seasons in multiple cropping systems
Organic directions
Application of FYM, like neem cake, Karanja, mustard etc. have been found promising.
Summer plowing:
Two to three tillage was during the hot months
irrigation management:
Irrigation results in alternation between plowing wetting and drying, which can stimulate exsheathment maiden R. reniformis
cultivation:
Good farming practices such as field preparation, fertilizer application and management of moisture can improve the tolerance of crops nematodes
Resistant:
Cowpea: Pusa Phalguni, C-152, RC-48
Papaya Solo, Washington, Coorg Honey Dew
Onion Evergreen
Chickpea: BG-425 BG-426 BG-434 BG-268 BG-273
Blackgram: UG-201 UG-135
Chilli: Jawala Pusa
Chemical control:
Soil application of carbofuran (Furadan 3G) AI 2 kg / ha gave good control but it can often be economic in many low value crops. However, the judicious use nematicides may be adopted by restricting their use in nursery beds, seed treatment, plunging naked vine cuttings and the application pit especially for transplants.
14. nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.)
Pratylenchus spp. are migratory endoparasitic root. The vernacular name of "root nematode" is derived from the discoloration of patches (lesions) develop on the roots. It has a range Guest wide, including important crops like wheat, corn, cotton, potato, rice, bananas, tea, vegetables, ornamentals and fruit. Some species of nematodes such as Pratylenchus thornei in wheat, soybeans, chickpeas, sunflower and opium, P. zeae in maize, rice ind ICU P. P. Loose tea in P. coffeae in coffee and bananas, P. pratensis P.vulnus in fruits and are serious problems.
Symptoms above the ground caused by the nematode are non-specific in nature. The nematode usually infects the roots, rhizomes or tubers. After penetrating the roots, they multiply in large numbers. All stages of this nematode are infectious. The exhibition of the attacked plant root is dark red brown lesions are caused by necrosis of invaded cells. lesion are the most characteristic symptoms. The lesions first appear as small, elongated water-soaked spots that turn quick brown to black. The loss of primary roots, pruning or root rot, the reduced size of flowers, the reduction of grains are also associated to nematodes. Several secondary soil load fungi, bacteria are also involved in decay and decomposition of roots and operation So infested roots are normal strongly weakened.
Management options
1. Summer plowing reduced field populations of nematodes
2. Application of carbofuran (Furadan 3G) at 1 kg ai / ha at seeding reduced the damages to crops caused by soil nematodes
3.Growing antagonistic cultures like marigold (Tagetes patula) cv. Harmony in the fall after the main crop or between rows of main crop.
4.Hot water treatment onions, bulbs, tubers and fleshy roots can kill dormant nematodes within the root.

15. Peas nematode Pigeon cyst (Heterodera Cajani)
Heterodera Cajani is the only species of cyst nematode parasite many of leguminous crops. This nematode is widespread and growing in importance in almost all pigeonpea growing states. Some populations of this nematode are known to attack as sesame. The species is noted for big-bag of eggs (almost twice the size of the cyst). Nematode completes its life cycle from 16 days at 29 0C and 45-80 days at 10 0C to 24 0C. It can also reproduce by parthenogenesis, but there are bisexual species. During a season of harvest, it can multiply rapidly and build a huge population. At seeding stage of the female plant pearly white or lemon-shaped can be found attached to roots. Infected plants show a yellowing, stunting, poor vigor and pod formation. Several cultures like pigeonpea, cowpea, mung bean, soybean, sesame and blackgram are seriously damaged by the nematode.
Management options:
Summer • plowing fields during the hot months
• Crop rotation with non host crops for 2-3 years
• Application on the floor of carbofuran (Furadan 3G) at 1-2 kg a. i / ha
• Bio-agent as Pasteuria penetrans (Pasutsuria 50WP) can be used to suppress the population soil.
16. Ectoparasitic nematodes
Several ectoparasitic nematodes are becoming new problems crop. Despite Many of his group in the soil and reaches a lot of adaptation of biological survival and multiplication against endoparasites, they are regularly violated as parasitic nematodes. Many kinds as Tylenchorhynchus, Hoplolaimus, Helicotylenchus, Paratylenchus, Hemicriconemoides, Hemicycliophora, Criconemoides, Xiphinema, Longidorus, Trichodorus etc. are prevalent in the rhizosphere of agriculture, horticulture and forestry crops and their potential pathogen have been proven harmful and character are well documented. However, ectoparasitic nematodes are at least attention also cause of their symptoms induced on plants are not easily convinced, often confused with problems of soil and other soil pathogens. Role played by this group of nematode is much more dangerous, especially when they interact with other soil microorganisms and thus make the plants vulnerable to pathogens low.
In the modern agricultural system, intensive and extensive cultivation of same crop, changes in cultural practices as varieties with high performance, poor diet, organic soil, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals, etc. resulting change in health status. For instances, brevilineatus Tylenchorhynchus, an ectoparasite polyphagous diverse cultures has emerged as a serious "disease Kalahasti ' losses due to diseases of groundnut in Andhra Pradesh accounting for 20-60% yield (Reddy et al., 1984). This nematode is also reported a source of concern in the tobacco in Gujarat. There are many cases like T. brassicae in cabbage and cauliflower, rice indicus Hoplolaimus and jute, banana multicintus Helicotylenchus, and Paratylenchus Criconemoides apple and peach, and Xiphinema Basiri Hemicriconemoides citrus, grapes and Paralongidorus Sal are the new problems of nematodes (Khan & Ganguly, 1995) in the scenario of agricultural evolution India.
Management options
• ectoparasitic nematodes are very vulnerable to plowing was exposing and break the cycle of life for many pathogens, including nematodes.
• Crop rotation with poor hosts
approaches and conclusion
Plant parasitic nematodes are a major limiting factor for crops. Changes in agricultural situations have significant effects on the emergence of new nematode problems in India. The recent outbreak of M. graminicola in Mandya district of Karnataka, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, disease caused by Aphelenchoides besseyi floral tuberose in West Bengal and Orissa, kalahasty disease of groundnut in Andhra Pradesh Meloidogyne indica in kagzi lime in Gujarat and Pratylenchus zeae in corn are some examples of serious concern. Despite the fact, parasitic nematodes plants are mostly neglected and considered low-priority factor for plant production and protection in India. The economic nematodes in agriculture is often underestimated and their potential for damage is not recognized by specialists in plant protection, scientists and administrators. As an important component of integrated pest management, nematode pathogens can not be ignored and they could be addressed with intelligent planning nematode suppressive crop sequences, was plowing, organic manure, the specific culture, adjusting planting time, water and irrigation management and wise use of nematicides. The growing concern about the adverse effects chemical pesticides on the environment has led recent research interest on the use of several alternative strategies such as Medicinal herbs, bio-pesticides and crop disease research systems management of insect pests, including nematodes,. Some of these successes have been obtained for the management of plant parasitic nematodes with neem-based formulations, formulation fungal P. lilacinus, Pasteuria bacteria formulations penetrans and Pseudomonas fluorescens. However, wider application of biological agents around the area is still limited probably due to their inconsistent efficacy in different agro-ecological situations. Integration of two or more methods can be explored on the basis of their compatibility, economic viability and availability of the farmers. Developing holistic approaches to management field problems, including nematodes inducing complex diseases, together with other pathogens such as fungi, bacteria and viruses are the major areas of future orientation research.
Shortages of Nematology Extension
1. insufficient knowledge about nematodes extension specialists
2. The ignorance of farmers, scientists and administrators on the pathogen of nematodes
3. The reluctance to give prominence because of nematode problems in crops
4. Non-acceptance of nematode pathogens as an important component of IPM
5. Lack Specialist nematodes and their low representation in the government training programs organized by extension ministry departments and government.
6. Non-availability of effective nematicides and little or no pesticide industries are concerned, is to develop new molecules or judge their existing products with nematicidal properties.
7. Lack of coordination between the disciplines of plant protection to resolve field problems by developing a comprehensive set of practices.
Suggestions:
1. To educate farmers and to convince authorities on the possibilities of small worm injury to crops.
2. group meetings organization plant protection and production specialists and the release of a publication at low cost to farmers at least before the Rabi and Kharif season each year
3. Ensure training conferences, including practical problems for the specialist nematology extension agents either separately or through training systematic program organized by the Ministry

Selected References

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